The Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance was called the beginning of the modern age. The word Renaissance itself is derived from the Latin word rinascere, which means to be reborn. Many dramatic changes occurred during this time in the fields of philosophy, art, politics, and literature. New emphasis was placed on enjoying life and the world around you. Talented individuals sought self-gratification through art, literature, and architecture, and their achievments would influence future generations for centuries to come. This great new movement was originated and centered in Italy, and without Italian contribution, would never have launched European society into the dawning of a new era. At the beginning of the Renaissance, Italy was divided into some 250 self- governing city-states, ranging from small towns of 2,000 individuals, to some of the largest cities in Europe of that time, such as Florence, Milan, and Venice, each with 100,000 citizens each. These city-states were loosely organized under the Pope, ruling out of Rome, although he had no real political control over the divided Italy. During the mid- 1300s and early 1400s, many large Italian cities came under the control of one family, such as the Visconti and later the Sforza families in Milan. The form of government established by the ruling families of the various Italian cities came to be known as signoria, with the chief official being called the signore. Soon , elaborate court systems, controlled by the ruling families, began to spring up in each city-state. At these courts, leading artists, intellectuals, and politicians gathered under the sponsorship of the signore and families. Other city states had a form of republicanism, such as Florence and Venice did. In these cities, a group of upper class families controlled the government, and often looked down upon the common residents of the town, considering them to be inferior. A Venetian observer wrote about Florence during this time:...

Youll Need This Trait to Find Professional Success

Youll Need This Trait to Find Professional Success Ever wonder what the secret to career success is? The unifying factor common to all of the most successful people? That special extra thing? You probably have it or you don’t. Sound ominous? At least it’s not some fancy education or hard-to-acquire skill. It turns out you can make up for a lot that you don’t have along the way, but there’s one thing that, if you have it, you’ll be in the best position to succeed.What is that thing? It isn’t supernatural intelligence. It isn’t pedigree.It’s grit. Can you focus in on a passion and not stop until you achieve success? Then you’ve got it, the number one indicator of high performance and long-term success- with an even greater predictability for success than high IQ.Freaking out wondering whether or not you possess this trait? Don’t worry. Here are a few building blocks of ‘grit’ as a thing you might be able to better cultivate in yourself while you’r e still early on in your career.A clear goalDetermination- no matter how much others doubt youConfidence in yourself  while you’re figuring out your trajectoryHumbleness- enough to be prepared for things to not come easilyPersistence in the face of fearPatience and flexibility- enough to navigate obstacles and hindrances without getting frustrated or giving upA code- a moral compass, and the integrity to follow it at all costsOpenness- being able to connect and collaborate with other people, and recognizing that accepting help does not equal weakness, but strengthGratitude- enough to appreciate the journey, not just keep your crazy eyes on the destinationAppreciation of othersLoyaltyInner strengthThese things might not be easily taught, but they can be honed. There’s even a measurable Grit Scale with a test developed by University of Pennsylvania researchers. Take their questionnaire and remember: you don’t have to be a trust-fund baby or a brainiac or a super charismatic magnetic personality to succeed wildly. You might just need grit.

Speech recognition software Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Speech recognition software - Essay Example The hardware poses another challenge since the software’s interpretation is largely influenced by how the spoken words sound. Inability to put the words into the context they are used in may result in wrong punctuation or inaccurate spellings.The biggest speech recognition concern is the nature of input devices. A microphone that is not sensitive enough can result in audio files that are complicated for software to develop. Human beings are increasingly interacting with voice controlled interfaces. The explosion of mobile computing devices that support voice recognition has led to an increased demand for speech recognition software. It has a wide range of applications such as in education where it is used to teach students with physical or language based learning disabilities.Medical and law students use it to transcribe notes Researchers and industry players are fascinated by opportunities presented by the software. Voice and natural language have been placed at the core of smart home devices. Analysts expect demand for speech recognition software to grow due to their expanding application areas. It is interesting that a technology that could only be in sci-fi movies a while back has now become a

E-Recruiting Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

E-Recruiting - Term Paper Example I hope to gain more knowledge on improved techniques that can be used in organizations to get potential employees more easily using the Internet resources. This knowledge will also enhance an individual’s knowledge about technological advancement. E-Recruitment analysis E-recruiting is the process by which personnel are recruited by using electronic resources and in particular the Internet (Watson, 2008). Most recruitment agents and companies have relocated most of their recruitment processes online in order to enhance the speed at which potential candidates can match live vacancies. Online recruiting systems are time-saving to the employer since they can easily rate their e-candidate and also several other people in the human resource department can review these candidates (Gary, 2005). The database technologies used in this program in conjunction with worthy search engines that advertise online jobs enable candidates to fill posts in a remarkably short period. In the ninetee nth century, recruitment was centrally based on an apprenticeship methodology. Organizations had apprentices who were not employees in the organization and after completion of the apprenticeship they were given jobs in the company. Comparison between the apprentices and skilled candidates proves that the skilled candidates are considered more desirable since they have the necessary qualifications pertaining to the job vacancy. With the needed employee data in the Human Resource Information System databases, Human Resource executives are free to pursue creative thinking and critical projects. This technology uses the power of online CV search technology to search resume databases and aid employers together with the human resource personnel actively search for valid candidates... This essay stresses that the Human Resource department is truly changing the operational phenomena in organizations that have adapted this change. The Human Resource Management System will ensure that employee’s data is managed effortlessly. The use of this system also reduces data-entry errors which are common in the traditional recruitment methods. In a considerate view, the paper-based processes detain about 80% of the information whereas the software system can detain all the data. The optimizing of the Human Resource management software system requires identification and investing in the right system to suit the business’s demands. One can also examine the technological, cultural and economic parameters. The communication factor also affects the competitive nature of the company by either increasing or decreasing it depending on the organization’s productivity. Employee satisfaction is also impacted by the financial capability of the employer. This also affe cts the health requirements and wellness of the employee in several ways. This article makes a concluiosn that nowadays, Human Resource managers are channeling their attention in motivation, policies, relations and quality consciousness in conjunction with E-Recruitment. Lastly, there are other future advocated models like Triple I, Federal and Shamrock that have been proposed by HR professionals including the likes of Charles Handy among others. These are the future organizational models to be used in the future of E-Recruitment.

Behavoural changes ie smoking censation

Behavoural changes ie smoking censation Behavoural Changes ie smoking censation This essay will discuss the Behaviour Change Model of Health education or The Trans-theoretical Model, (TTM) in relation to smoking cessation. As G. K. Chesterton once said, â€Å"It isnt that they cant see the solution. It is that they cant see the problem.† Families, friends, neighbours, or employees, however, are often well aware that the pre-contemplators have problems. Stages of Change Prochaska DiClement`s transtheoretical model (1984,1986; Prochaska et al 1992) is important in describing the process of change. The model derived from their work on encouraging change in addiction behaviours, although it can be used to show that most people go through stages when trying to change or acquire behaviours. American psychologists, Jim Prochaska and Carlo Di Clement, Termination. Process of change. Downloaded By: [Glasgow Caledonian University] At: 14:49 12 July 2009 4 ADDICTIONS NURSING NETWORKNOLUME 5, NUMBER 1,1993 In our studies using the discrete categorization measurement of stages of change, we ask whether the individual is seriously intending to change the problem behavior in the near future, typically within the next six months. If not, he or she is classified as a precontemplator. Even precontemplators can wish to change, but this seems to be quite different from intending or seriously considering change in the next six months. Items that are used to identify precontemplation on the continuous stage of change measure include â€Å"As far as Im concerned, I dont have any problems that need changing† and â€Å"I guess I have faults, but theres nothing that I really need to change.† Resistance to recognizing or modifying a problem is the hallmark of precontemplation . Splral Pattern of Change. Many New Years resolvers report five or more years of consecutive pledges before maintaining the behavioral goal for at least six months (Norcross Vangarelli, 1989). Relapse and recycling through the stages occur quite frequently as individuals attempt to modify or cease addictive behaviors. Variations of the stage model are being used increasingly by behavior change specialists to investigate the dynamics of relapse (e.g., Brownell et al., 1986; Donovan Marlatt, 1988). Because relapse is the rule rather than the exception with addictions, we found that we needed to modify our original stage model. Initially we conceptualized change as a linear progression through the stages; people were supposed to progress simply and discretely through each step. Linear progression is a possible but relatively rare phenomenon with addictive behaviors. Figure 1 presents a spiral pattern that illustrates how most people actually move through the stages of change. In this spiral pattern, people can progress from contemplation to preparation to action to maintenance, but most individuals will relapse. During relapse, individuals regress to an earlier stage. Some TERYINATION a YAHTENANCE PRECONTEYPLATIOW CONTEYPLATKJN PREPARATKJ relapsers feel like failures-embanassed, ashamed, and guilty. These individuals become demoralized and resist thinking about behavior change. As a result, they return to the precontemplation stage and can remain there for various periods of time. Approximately 15% of smokers who relapsed in our self-change research regressed back to the precontemplation stage (Prochaska DiClemente, 1986). Fortunately, this research indicates that the vast majority of relapsers85% of smokers, for example- recycle back to the contemplation or preparation stages (Prochaska DiClemente, 1984). They begin to consider plans for their next action attempt while trying to learn from their recent efforts. To take another example, fully 60% of unsuccessful New Years resolvers make the same pledge the next year (Norcross, Ratzin, Payne, 1989; Norcross Vangarelli, 1989). The spiral model suggests that most relapsers do not resolve endlessly in circles and that they do not regress all the way back to where they began. Instead, each time relapsers recycle through the stages, they potentially learn from their mistakes and can try something different the next time around (DiClemente et al., 1991). On any one trial, successful behavior change is limited in the absolute numbers of individuals who are able to achieve maintenance (Cohen et al., 1989; Schachter, 1982). Nevertheless, in a cohort of individuals, the number of successes continues to increase gradually over time. However, a large number of individuals remain in contemplation and precontemplation stages. Ordinarily, the more action taken, the better the prognosis. Much more research is needed to better distinguish those who benefit from recycling from those who end up spinning their wheels. Arguments for and against Conclusion Influencing the people to change behaviours such as how they eat,excersice ,drink, smoke requires a long term commoitment but it is a process that they can sucseed. Nurses have a key role to play in influencing behaviour of their patients, and health promotion should be embed MAINTENANCE: practice required for the new behaviour to be consistently maintained, incorporated into the repertoire of behaviours available to a person at any one time. ACTION: people make changes, acting on previous decisions, experience, information, new skills, and motivations for making the change. PREPARATION: person prepares to undertake the desired change requires gathering information, finding out how to achieve the change, ascertaining skills necessary, deciding when change should take place may include talking with others to see how they feel about the likely change, considering impact change will have and who will be affected. CONTEMPLATION: something happens to prompt the person to start thinking about change perhaps hearing that someone has made changes or something else has changed resulting in the need for further change. PRECONTEMPLATION: changing a behaviour has not been considered; person might not realise that change is possible or that it might be of interest to them. Source: The Behavior Change spiral from What do they want us to do now? AFAO 1996 ded in daily practice. E following review explores and considers some of the major theories of behaviour and behaviour change that may be pertinent to the development of effective interventions in travel behaviour, including theories and concepts from mainstream psychology, and the associated sub-disciplines of health, leisure, recreation, physical activity and exercise psychology. For many years conceptual models of behaviour change, such as Banduras Social Cognitive Learning Theory (1986), Beckers Health Belief Model (1974), Azjen and Fishbeins Theory of Reasoned Action (1975); have been applied across a wide variety of disciplines, including travel and road user behaviour. Considerable attention has been given in the literature to models of individual behaviour change per se but much less attention has been given to models or theories that attempt to understand behaviour change within groups, organisations and whole communities. The design of programs to reach populations requires an understanding of how those communities work, their barriers and enablers to change, and what influences their behaviours in general. Stage Theories of Behaviour Change Mounting evidence suggests that behaviour change occurs in stages or steps and that movement through these stages is neither unitary or linear, but rather, cyclical, involving a pattern of adoption, maintenance, relapse, and readoption over time. The work of Prochaska and DiClemente (1986) and their colleagues have formally identified the dynamics and structure of staged behaviour change. In attempting to explain these patterns of behaviour, Prochaska and DiClemente developed a transtheoretical model of behavioural change, which proposes that behaviour change occurs in five distinct stages through which people move in a cyclical or spiral pattern. The first of these stages is termed precontemplation. In this stage, there is no intent on the part of the individual to change his or her behaviour in the foreseeable future. The second stage is called contemplation, where people are aware that a problem exists and are seriously considering taking some action to address the problem. However, at this stage, they have not made a commitment to undertake action. The third stage is described as preparation, and involves both intention to change and some behaviour, usually minor, and often meeting with limited success. Action is the fourth stage where individuals actually modify their behaviour, experiences, or environment in order to overcome their problems or to meet their goals. The fifth and final stage, maintenance, is where people work to prevent relapse and consolidate the gains attained in the action stage. The stabilization of behaviour change and the avoidance of relapse are characteristic of the maintenance stage. Prochaska and DiClemente further suggest that behavioural change occurs in a cyclical process that involves both progress and periodic relapse. That is, even with successful behaviour change, people likely will move back and forth between the five stages for some time, experiencing one or more periods of relapse to earlier stages, before moving once again through the stages of contemplation, preparation, action and eventually, maintenance. In successful behavioural change, while relapses to earlier stages inevitably occur, individuals never remain within the earlier stage to MAINTENANCE: practice required for the new behaviour to be consistently maintained, incorporated into the repertoire of behaviours available to a person at any one time. ACTION: people make changes, acting on previous decisions, experience, information, new skills, and motivations for making the change. PREPARATION: person prepares to undertake the desired change requires gathering information, finding out how to achieve the change, ascertaining skills necessary, deciding when change should take place may include talking with others to see how they feel about the likely change, considering impact change will have and who will be affected. CONTEMPLATION: something happens to prompt the person to start thinking about change perhaps hearing that someone has made changes or something else has changed resulting in the need for further change. PRECONTEMPLATION: changing a behaviour has not been considered; person might not realise that change is possible or that it might be of interest to them. Source: The Behavior Change spiral from What do they want us to do now? AFAO 1996 which they have regressed, but rather, spiral upwards, until eventually they reach a state where most of their time is spent in the maintenance stage. Further work undertaken and reported by Prochaska et el (1992) suggests that behaviour change can only take place in the context of an enabling or supportive environment. Prochaskas and DiClementes model has received considerable support in the research literature. Their model has also been shown to have relevance for understanding, among other things, patterns of physical activity participation and adherence and would have relevance in bringing about change in travel behaviours. Consistent with the above perspective, Sallis and Nader (1988) also have suggested a stage approach to explaining movement behaviour, particularly in family groups, with research aimed at understanding better the cyclical patterns of movement activity SOCIAL FEATURES nature of personal elationships; expectations of class, position, age, gender;access to knowledge, information. CULTURAL FEATURES the behaviours and attitudes considered acceptable in given contexts eg. relating to sex, gender, drugs, leisure, participation. ETHICAL SPIRITUAL FEATURES influence of personal and shared values and discussion about moral systems from which those are derived can include rituals, religion nd rights of passage. LEGAL FEATURES laws determining what people can do and activities to encourage observance of those laws . POLITICAL FEATURES systems of governance in which change will have to take place can, for example, limit access to information and involvement in social action. RESOURCE FEATURES affect what is required to make things happen covers human, financial and material resources; community knowledge and skills; and items for exchange Source: The Behavior Change spiral from What do they want us to do now? AFAO 1996 involvement, including adoption, maintenance, and relapse, and interventions aimed at minimizing the amount of time individuals spend in the relapse stage as well as maximizing time spent in action or maintenance. This stage approach is contrasted to the all or none approach to physical activity participation that often characterized early research on exercise adherence. Such a staged approach sits well with any school based program that is focussed on travel behaviour change given that the context in which the program is to be applied would see fluctuations in the positive and negative influences according to such things as work and time demands of family members, weather, events or incidents in the local neighbourhood that may influence perceptions of safety. Parallel with the work of Prochaska and DiClemente, Rogers, (1983) also developed a stage-based theory to explain how new ideas or innovations are disseminated and adopted at the community and population levels. Rogers identified five distinct stages in the process of diffusion of any new initiative or innovation. These are knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. Rogers argued that the diffusion of an innovation is enhanced when the perceived superiority of an innovation is high compared to existing practice (i.e. the relative advantage), and when the compatibility of the innovation with the existing social system is perceived to be high (i.e. compatibility). Other important influences on the diffusion process are said to be complexity, triability, and observability, with innovations which are of low complexity, easily observed, and that are able to be adopted on a trial basis, being associated with greater adoption and swifter diffusion. Building success and comfort during the early stages of the implementation of the TravelSMART Schools program will be paramount to its success. Rogers classifies individuals as innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, late adopters, and laggards, dependent upon when during the overall diffusion process they adopt a new idea or behaviour. While this model has not been tested empirically to date, it has been adapted and applied in health promotion settings usually in conjunction with social learning theory and/or self-efficacy theory, with some success. It certainly warrants attention in the development of the TravelSMART Schools program. In summarizing the various stage models of behaviour change that have been proposed over the past two decades, Owen and Lee (1984) highlighted a number of commonalties they share. These authors propose an integrated stage-based model in which behaviour change is viewed as a cyclical process that involves five stages of: awareness of the problem and a need to change motivation to make a change skill development to prepare for the change initial adoption of the new activity or behaviour, and maintenance of the new activity and integration into the lifestyle. In terms of a TravelSMART program this may mean: Five stages of behaviour change Examples of content and processes Awareness of the problem and a need to change Provision of, or ways to seek information on the dependence on motorised travel; evidence of the greenhouse effect; issues relation to building relationships and fitness Motivation to make a change Benefits of increased personal fitness; benefits of leaving the car at home eg. environmental and social Skill development to prepare for the change Mapping of the local area to identify alternative forms of travel, ways to negotiate with reluctant family members or peers to manage the need to carry; strategies for trip chaining and travel blending Initial adoption of the new activity or behaviour Self monitoring of newly adopted behaviours to, opportunities for reflections and comparisons Maintenance of the new activity and integration into the lifestyle Provision of feedback on how the change is going, and an injection of new ideas or strategy An important aspect of both Prochaskas and DiClementes approach and that suggested by Owen and Lee is that each of the five stages of behaviour change is said to involve different cognitive processes and require different treatments or intervention strategies for the overall change process to be successful. Prochaska and DiClemente (1992) outlined a number of cognitive change processes that have been found to be associated with each stage. Other researchers also propose that different stages in the change process require different intervention strategies, and generally recommend a multifaceted, community-based approach to intervention in which all stages are addressed so that individuals at all stages of readiness for change can potentially be influenced. This sits well with the overall TravelSMART programs TravelSMART Communities, TravelSMART Workplaces and TravelSMART Schools. A major insight offered by stage theories of behaviour change, then, is the emphasis they place on matching interventions to the stage of readiness of the individual. This kind of approach provides an excellent framework for understanding and examining individual differences in motivation for, and involvement in, change in travel behaviours over time, including patterns of initiation, maintenance, relapse, and resumption. In summary, theories that conceptualise behaviour change in terms of a cyclical process through which individuals move in stages, have received empirical support in the research, and appear to offer much promise for understanding travel behaviours and curricula to bring about changes in travel behaviour. A major strength of the Stages of Change model is that it has also been used in conjunction with a variety of other theories and models that are relevant to different levels of influence at an intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community or public policy level. (Glanz and Rimer (1995) as reported by Oldenberg et al (1999)) Social Cognitive-Behavioural Theories and Similar Theories Social Cognitive Theory explains human behaviour in terms of a triadic, dynamic and reciprocal model in which behaviour, personal factors, and environmental influences interact. It addresses both the psychological dynamics underlying behaviour and their methods for promoting behaviour change. It is a very complex theory and includes many key constructs. Self-efficacy is one of the key concepts. Self-efficacy refers to ones confidence in the ability to take action and persist in action. It is seen by Bandura (1986) as perhaps the single most important factor in promoting changes in behaviour. Measures of self-efficacy and some of the other key concepts from Social Cognitive Theory have also been identified as key determinants of movement through the stages of change, (Oldenburg, 1999). Self-efficacy expectations have been found repeatedly to be important determinants of: the choice of activities in which people engage how much energy they will expend on such activities and the degree of persistence they demonstrate in the face of failure and/or adversity. In general, higher levels of self-efficacy for a given activity are associated with higher participation in that activity. Similarly, and closely aligned to Social Cognitive Theory, Attribution Theory proposes that individuals generally view their performance (and thus, their successes and failures) as dependent upon ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. In addition, causal influences are seen as either internal to the individual (e.g. personal ability), or external (e.g. barriers to community safety, lack of convenient and attractive travel alternatives). The distinction between internal and external attributions is an important one, in that how we attribute our personal successes and failures has been shown to be related to not only our behaviour, but our self-esteem, our perceptions of personal control, our self-efficacy for different tasks and/or performance situations, and our ongoing involvement in different activities. For example, a person who attributes their failure to change their dependence on motorised travel to their inherent lack of ability to identify and use alternatives will be less likely to continue with the alternative modes of travel after the educational program has ceased. A persons attributions for personal success and failure in a given situation, then, determines how that person feels about the task, as well as the amount of effort he or she is likely to invest in the task the next time around. When failure is attributed to low personal ability and a difficult task, individuals are more likely to give up sooner, select easier alternatives, such as using personal motorised travel, and lower their goals. Conversely, when failure is attributed to external factors such as bad luck, individuals are likely to have higher motivations to continue and to try again for success. Attitudes and their potential relationship to behaviour also have been studied extensively. In general, attitudes have not generally been found to be consistently related to behaviour. This failure to demonstrate a consistent relationship between attitudes and behaviour may be because situational factors also exert a powerful influence on behaviour. In addition, how attitudes have been defined and measured in different studies varies considerably. Research has demonstrated consistently that an attitude is likely to predict behaviour when: the attitude includes a specific behavioural intention when both the attitude and the intention are very specific and when the attitude is based on first-hand experience . These aspects of the behaviour-attitude relationship have been addressed in the Theory of Reasoned Action, which focuses on the role of context-specific attitudes in defining behaviour. In this model, behaviour is seen as a function of a persons intention, which in turn is comprised of the individuals attitudes towards performing the behaviour and the influence of perceived social norms concerning the performance of the behaviour. Attitudes are affected by the persons beliefs about the perceived consequences of performing a given action, and his or her subjective evaluation of each of the consequences. Drawing this together, any published individually focused and community based health behaviour change and health promotion programs have generally been based on Social Cognitive theories utilising techniques that emphasise the cognitive and social mediators of behaviour. Interventions based on cognitive learning theory emphasize self-management principles and strategies. Other Theories to Consider Personality Theories Personality theories explain behaviour largely in terms of stable traits or patterns of behaviour which are viewed as resistant to change and inalterable. Rogers, (1985), classification of individuals into the five categories of innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, late adopters, and laggards is an example of this kind of approach to understanding behaviour. A major limitation of personality theories is that they do not take account of important aspects of the physical, social and economic environments, or the previous experiences of the individual, which also are known to strongly influence behaviour. For this reason, personality theories alone now are generally considered inadequate to explain behaviour change. Learning and Behaviour Theories Learning theorists have demonstrated that behaviour can be changed by providing appropriate rewards, incentives, and/or disincentives. In learning or behaviourist approaches, these rewards and incentives are typically incorporated into structured reinforcement schedules, and the process of behaviour changes is often termed behaviour modification. While effective in bringing about behaviour change, such approaches require a high level of external control over both the physical and social environment, and the incentives (or disincentives) used to reinforce certain behaviours and discourage others. This kind of control is hard to maintain in real life settings, and thus, strict behaviourist approaches are subject to a number of limitations. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory is similar to learning and behaviour theories in that it focuses on specific, measurable aspects of behaviour. Learning theories, however, view behaviour as being shaped primarily by events within the environment, whereas social learning theory views the individual as an active participant in his or her behaviour, interpreting events and selecting courses of action based on past experience. Again, one important theory deriving from social learning theory which has had a major impact on many current models of behaviour change is that of self-efficacy. As stated earlier, self-efficacy expectations have to do with a persons beliefs in his or her abilities to successfully execute the actions necessary to meet specific situational demands. Such expectations have been found to be consistently related to behaviour across a wide range of situations and populations sub-groups. Social Psychological Theories Social psychological theories are concerned with understanding how events and experiences external to a person (i.e. aspects of the social situation and physical environment) influence his or her behaviour. Emphasis is placed on aspects of the social context in which behaviour occurs, including social norms and expectations, cultural mores, social stereotypes, group dynamics, cohesion, attitudes and beliefs. A number of useful concepts have emerged from social psychological theories, including attribution, locus of control, and cognitive dissonance, to name a few. Social Cognitive Approaches Social cognitive approaches combine aspects of social psychological theories with components of both social learning theory and cognitive behavioural approaches. Social-cognitive approaches emphasize the persons subjective perceptions and interpretations of a given situation or set of events, and argue that these need to be taken into account if we are to understand adequately both behaviour and the processes of behaviour change. A number of social psychological concepts have been found to be consistently related to behaviour change across a wide range of situations. For example, the social reality of a the group (e.g. peer group, school group, family group etc.) will affect an individuals behaviour. All groups are characterized by certain group norms, beliefs and ways of behaving, and these can strongly affect the behaviour of the group members. Expectations of significant or respected others can also have a strong influence on a persons behaviour. This phenomenon has been most consistently demonstrated in the early research on self-fulfilling prophecies, which showed that teachers expectations of their students were consistently related to the students subsequent performance, even when these expectations were based on falsified information. Thus, support and encouragement, or conversely, low expectations from significant or respected others, can affect and bring about, (or not), changes in individual behaviour. Health Belief Model The Health Belief Model attempts to explain health-behaviour in terms of individual decision-making, and proposes that the likelihood of a person adopting a given healthrelated behaviour is a function of that individuals perception of a threat to their personal health, and their belief that the recommended behaviour will reduce this threat. Thus, a person would be more likely to adopt a given behaviour (e.g. walk or cycle regularly) if non-adoption of that behaviour (e.g. unclean air or confused traffic situations) is perceived as a health threat and adoption is seen as reducing that threat. To date, the Health Belief Model has not received consistent or strong support in explaining behaviour change. When the concept of self-efficacy is added to the model, however, prediction of behaviour increases. Social Marketing Another approach that has been used to bring about behaviour change is that of social marketing. The concept of social marketing is based on marketing principles and focuses on four key elements, including: development of a product the promotion of the product the place the price. As such, this approach is not so much a theory of behaviour change but a proposed framework, which situates people as consumer who will potentially buy into a certain idea or argument, given the appropriate selling techniques are applied. It is then assumed that the buying in to that idea by individuals will result in behaviour change. Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour Habit strength is another concept that has been found to be important in predicting or changing behaviour. Habit is an important element of the theory of interpersonal behaviour, which proposes that the likelihood of engaging in a given behaviour is a function of: the habit of performing the behaviour the intention to perform the behaviour conditions which act to facilitate or inhibit performance of the behaviour. In turn, intentions are said to be shaped by a cognitive component, an affective component, a social component, and a personal normative belief. The theory of i

Future of Public Sector Bargaining

The public sector workers unions in Canada play a very important role in the industrial workforce. The roles of these unions us to protect and enhance the members interests by making the government aware of the things that affect their work and policies that need to be lightened so that they can be motivated to work and help in improving the country's economy. Since the early 1980s, Canada has been evaluating its role in the nation's economic and social affairs.The Public sector responsibilities include: the provision of vital social services, preserving the nation’s identity and promoting economic development (Swimmer & Thompson). All these factors have been affected in one way or another by the reduction of government funding in support of the ventures thus affecting the public sector industrial relations. Progress in the public sector In Canada matured in 1965 when the government was expanding its activities and increased its funding such that labor and management performed well.The legal framework of collective bargaining was established in the 1940s as a way of increasing the functions and the positive relationships among labor, capital and the state. Various reforms were made in the labor unions in the 1960s with the aim of enhancing the workers rights and improving the employer employee relationship. Changes in the Canadian public sector started to take place in 1982 when controls were placed in the way the government made compensation.In early 1990s, people were tired with the restrictions and for this reason, in 1991 when the federal budget was made; it was followed by the largest federal employee union strike (Swimmer & Thompson). Examples of control programs that have been in place include the Social Credit Administration in British Columbia (1982) and the Mulroney government (1991). The willingness of the government to impose such policies raised the issue of the role of industrial relations to determine the terms and conditions of employment in Canada (Panitch & Swartz).Free collective bargaining began during the expansion of the post war capitalism in the 1960s and continued to deteriorate in the after years as restrictions on the government side created led to resistance on the union’s sides affecting organizational, political and ideological factors (Swimmer & Thompson). The Private sector responded to changes affected laborers by adopting new industrial relations practices and structures that never addressed the problem as it ought to. â€Å"The sectionalism was a result of years of neglect of the political and ideological mobilizing aspects of trade unionism (Panitch& Swartz, 152).† This is because the Canadian government never made any significant effort to restructure the economy evidenced by the few labor legislation reforms and laws (Swimmer & Thompson). There were an increasing number of women who joined the labor unions at this time and this enhanced the bargaining position of the labor unions. Wage negotiations never bore the fruits that the workers wanted and economic changes led to the reduction on unemployment as more people were employed in private firms on part-time basis. For this reason, private businesses failed.The public sector on the other hand, never reduced employment in any sector at high rates such that there was significant increase in employment in the government administrative services. This is because the government still provides vital services in the economy so they cannot change their operations as easily as the private sector. Moreover, it is difficult to substitute capital for labor. For the government to be able to support all these activities, they had to cut down on expenses across all the sectors. Measures of ChangeCoverage is an important indicator of change as it enables the union management to know the employees they support. Strikes and work stoppages are other change indicators. Therefore it is necessary that the right to strike and other financial restraint packages are founded in the law. There are also various changes in collective bargaining involving the bargaining and negotiation structures. All these indicators are vital in both the private and private sectors for developing accessing and making decisions on how several changes will be developed.This seemed to work in the 1970s when the public sector compensation was more than the private sector compensation levels. Role of strikes The rate of union strikes had reduced in Canada between the years 1984-1994. There are no valid explanations for the strikes but they are said to be triggered most in the presence of inflation and increase in unemployment. â€Å"An example is the 1976 Canadian Labor Congress (CLC) against the anti-inflation program (Panitch& Swartz). † The government has thus created regulations to deal with strikes.The right to strike by the public service was mandated by the government in 1994 but this was removed from British Columbia ind ustrial policies. Despite the regulations on bargaining outcomes, public sector strikes rose and they were even more than those related to the private sector. The back to work legislation and cabinet orders also led to the strikes such that there were about 39 restrictions between the years 1975-1986; 14 in Quebec and 11 in Ontario (Swimmer & Thompson).This led to the allegations that the laws were minimizing the bargaining rights of public employees. Coverage of the industrial Relations system in Canada Collective bargaining has always been there in the public sector to enhance the workers rights. Educations, government and health sector unions were among the most active in the 1980s and early 1990s even with the involvement of the private sector. â€Å"This is also the period when free trade and free capital flows enhanced work flexibility (Panitch & Swartz, 226).† Changes in public service delivery have created several challenges in the industrial relations system and will continue to do so. â€Å"For example, decentralizing the health care systems leads to the transfer of resources; all forms of capital including human capital, from large facilities to smaller health institutions in remote parts of the country. For the health care union to continue maintaining their strength, they will need to consider organizing smaller unions that have not yet been practiced. From the 1980s experiences, these unions will be successful (Swimmer & Thompson).† Despite the government's efforts to restrict the bargaining powers of the public sector unions, the government introduced employee involvement programs in the workplace in order to undermine the capabilities of the unions. This can be seen in 2000 when the government reorganized management practices in government run institutions but Swimmer says that such initiates will not necessarily affect the work of labor unions (Swimmer &Thompson, 433). Moreover, their role is not to weaken public employeesâ€℠¢ attachment to their unions.The public and private sector were not getting along especially in 1994 between employees in unions and those who were not. This is because the employees in unions wanted a lot of changes to be made and they needed to be in unison with their un-unionized counterparts who never had a spokesperson to facilitate the negotiation. This was made worse by the minimum legal standards and economic changes. Even in professional occupations in the public sector workers were reluctant to join collective labor agreements (Panitch & Swartz). Conduct of public sector bargainingLegislations somehow gave public sector workers in provinces like Ontario and British Columbia the striking right there was very minimal legislative changes. Most of these restrictions have reduced the importance of bargaining or eliminated it completely. However, Unions can use the Charter and rights freedom to delay the implementation of such restrictions and these means that they have a better chance of increasing their bargaining power. Efforts have been made to create central bargaining structures for example in British Columbia, the teachers union is being introduced to a provincial bargaining structure.Moreover, laws are enabling the formation of the sectoral bargaining in most public sectors. The state and large public sectors; especially education and health, are forming master bargaining structures. This is because the government sees centralizing the bargaining structures as a method of controlling its expenses. Centralizing bargaining structures takes place when the government employer undertakes the action and such arrangements with the government are not necessarily permanent.The government’s ability to control such bargaining agreements means that there is a likelihood of rise in political struggles when both sides do not agree especially given the fact that the public sector unions are likely to resist any government’s efforts to reduce their s alaries. The bargaining process will therefore entail the increment in the salaries for the top personnel who are likely to be limited by the accountability restrictions under the budgetary restrictions which will make hiring and retaining the top public personnel difficult.Pay and employment equity also affect compensation. Pay equity is likely to contribute to better female compensation but this will has the possibility of contributing to the internal problems within the organization. The Government will be looking for ways to reduce their tax expenditures and this will result in reductions in unemployment so that it can minimize the compensation rates. Nothing much can be done by the unions since there are no structures in place to address job security issues.Most of the public sector workers will therefore find it difficult to secure employment in the private sector. Issues of job security will therefore be at the forefront as a political matter and also at the bargaining table. Compensation for the municipal employees will also need to be looked at seriously especially since civic unions like that in British Columbia have been actively engaged in the local politics. Their continued involvement in such issues will lead to restrictions being made by the senior public officials. Future of public sector bargainingAfter the Second World War, labor unions in Canada used the old strategies that were associated with social democratic gradualism. Moreover, the unions focused on what their members needed in bargaining the terms and conditions for employment with their employers. Therefore, more emphasis was placed on negotiating skills rather over educating and mobilizing members (Panitch & Swartz, 226). The future if public sector bargaining can be enhanced by adapting various strategies and models as outlined below: Panitch and Swartz approaches ? Progressive competitivenessInvestment needs to be made by employers in increasing their employee’s skills thro ugh continuous education; training and research so that they are able to support the industry, promote new technologies and a high value-added economy that will enable them to be paid higher wages. Labor is therefore used as a means of supporting and enhancing the other forms of capital so as to increase productivity (Panitch & Swartz). The disadvantage of this strategy is that it only helps the elite hence those who are not skilled enough will miss out on a lot of job opportunities hence the least developed regions will remain underdeveloped.? Partnership internationalism This strategy was developed in the 1990s which involved labor unions being restructured so that they could be able to adopt certain conditions set by international trade organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This makes the labor leaders more responsible as they have to represent the interests of other member workers. Moreover, it ensures that unf air labor conditions and certain state regulations are addressed according to international standards and regulations.This therefore means that the public sector industrial institutions will have to develop an export-oriented model that may not be necessarily what the government was hoping for. This will mean that the country's employment will depend on low cost exports. This will mean that salaries will be limited as the employment rates are likely to decrease if the economy is doing badly. In addition, making the public sector bargaining more internationalized does not really support militant workers struggles hence making it harmful to the economy.Other strategies The new strategy as proposed by Panitch and Swartz (p. 236) should be more of a condition so that it is able to enhance its success as well as transform labor. The political leaders should therefore control investments and make reforms with the aim of reducing working hours and other limits that are found within the lab or movements. There also needs to be a strategy for reorganizing the public sector unions by creating new capabilities for the workers and the changing the union’s organizational structures for the better.The unions also need to open themselves up to the broader community so that they assist in the growth of the economy and developing their capacity and confidence to be a positive influence on others. Leadership and openness bring about significant changes that enhance the union's collective bargaining power. It is also necessary to develop ways that will be used to deal with new workers who are not part of the group could be included in the union so as to increase the labor union's bargaining power(237). Educational initiatives need to be created as this will help in including non-union members.Effort will need to be made in strengthening the social movement within the organization and also the community level. The Unions in Canada have not been able to achieve much in the s ense of fighting for their rights because their leaders assert too much power in the control of the unions such that they are not able to effectively communicate with their members. Canadians shifted from the American international unions in the 1980s and merged with the Canadian unions where they were faced with internal problems within the union structures.â€Å"Leadership in the unions needs to be restructured. This will entail educating leaders especially those who cannot see that the labor unions are lagging behind and are not fighting for the rights of the workers like they ought to (Panitch & Swartz). † Moreover, well developed democratic structures will enhance more involved and committed membership which is likened to the politicization of the union as seen today. According to Swimmer and Thompson, five scenarios/models will influence future public sector bargaining. They include: 1. Back to the pastThis scenario entails looking into the various features of the assoc iation-consultation model in public sector industrial relations. Employees will be more aware of their rights in terms of the pay they are supposed to get, length of working hours and other employee related organizational rules. This means that the employers will have to listen to their suggestions and pass the decisions that they see fit. Public employees however, have not shown signs of breaking away from the collective agreements. In addition, there is a lot of support for collective bargaining despite the restrictions in place.Workers can therefore engage in strikes if they feel that their grievances are not being addressed in a proper manner. Loyalty to the unions is brought about by the poor wages and they need to stick together for wage increases. This loyalty is however seen to fade away if their issues are not addressed in the long run. However, the success of strikes such as the 1991 federal government workers is enough to gather support and the government has not suggeste d any other form of consultation other than collective bargaining.In this model, job security for the public workers will be enhanced because they will be pressured to perform like their private counterparts. Though the program is not specifically designed to reduce unemployment, the adoption of the private sector organizational and operational systems will at least help in improving the status of the economy thus enhancing job security. 2. A sullen Truce Sullen truce occurs when the government hinders compensation and any form of public sector bargaining for a certain period of time such that employees cannot force any policies.Since the government cannot abolish the workers unions, they will simply ignore their existence. This model considers work stoppages as illegal. Public sector workers can decide not to communicate with their employers so that they can see that they are not motivated to perform their work well. This model did prevail in the 1990s where the government still re -enforced their restrictive policies. It can work in regions where the economy is declining and unemployment rates are high so that they are forced to bare with the poor status of the economy.If the private sector does well such that their wage rates have increased, then this model will not work. The government may refuse to engage in the bargaining process so that they can gain from the booming economy at the expense of the workers who will in turn demonstrate for their rights. The workers bargaining power will therefore depend on the society's economic situation. The public sector union can look for support from the private union workers as well as rights activists. Since they will be supported by influential members of the society, the government will be forced to lighten its rules.3. A new golden Age When government’s revenue is increasing, it means that the public services will also increase. Collective bargaining will be easier as the government is able to pay for the i ncreasing costs hence the negotiations are easier. But this is not always the case as the economy is not always stable and the political environment should always be stable. This will in turn mean that competent political leaders will be needed at the state and provincial level so that they make proper laws.On the other hand if the economy was booming, the workers unions will want their salaries increased constantly. 4. Struggle in the Streets This model involves incorporating the government's centralized bargaining structure in the bargaining strategies used by the public sector unions. It is further likened to the public sector industrial reforms between 1972 and 1982 in Quebec. The government to initiate change in the public sector industrial relations, it must be willing to maintain centralized bargaining structures as well as coordination as seen in the 1990s.The public sector may limit such efforts by their unwillingness to cooperate but the government will face pressure from striking and work stoppages by the employees. For public employees to get what they need, they will need to strike on a large scale from time to time if their issues are to be addressed. The government on the other hand can be able to gain support from the private sector union members and by using various legislative actions. 5. Power sharingIn this model, governments need to cut on spending and they will have to communicate the decisions they make with the public sector unions. Through such meetings, they are able to come to a consensus by agreeing on terms so that spending is controlled. Job security for some workers can be negotiated. This model therefore ensures that public sector employee rights enhanced through the commitment of both parties. The government needs to pass legislations that are less restrictive and the public sector workers need to accept some conditions which are necessary.Such conditions are not easily achieved because the government addresses changes often an d organizations have different operational structures and for this reason it is important for both parties to be willing to bend their rules. This model is similar to the productivity bargaining model that is used by private firms where costs must be minimized so that more money can be saved and paid as wage increases. Conclusion The Canadian public sector bargaining strategies have been limited over the years by strict government regulations and poor union structures among other factors.If these issues neither are nor addressed in a proper manner and fast. Labor unrest will continue to be a significant part of public sector bargaining. However, this can change with a decline in militancy in both the private and public sector hence, the reduction of public strikes will in turn reduce the overall strike rates in the country. The Unions need to restructure themselves as well as get support from the government so that they are in a position to ensure that its members have the necessary resources and are included in making decisions in the union hence reinforcing their solidarity to the union.Reforms in the public sector bargaining are very necessary as they ensure that freedom of expression of the workers is enhanced in a proper thus improving the future of the Canadian working class. References Panitch, L. & Swartz, D. From Consent to Coercion: The Assault on Trade Union Freedoms. 3rd Ed. Ch. 7 & 10, pp. 143-241 Swimmer, G. &Thompson, M. Public Sector Collective Bargaining in Canada: the future of public sector Industrial Relations. Ch. 16, pp. 430-445

Social, Ethical, And Economic Problems - 1139 Words

AD was first identified in 1906, however, research into its causes and treatment only gained momentum over the past 30 years. Research into AD and the exact physiological changes that trigger the development of AD still remain unknown. The only exceptions are certain rare, inherited forms of the disease caused by known genetic mutations. (Dekkers, W., Marcel, O. R. 2006) There are some major links to those who are affected by (AD). The link that connects family history those who have a parent, or sibling with Alzheimer s are at a greater risk of developing the disease. (Dekkers, W., Marcel, O. R. 2006) AD is not a usual part of growing older, however, it is one of the highest risk factor for the disease. Currently, millions of people are affected by AD worldwide and the number is expected to rise well over 106 million by the year 2050, this rise will cause serious clinical, social, ethical, and economic problems. (Dekkers, W., Marcel, O. 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